Difference between revisions of "Biology of the Vertebrates Study Questions F2012"

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''questions, or their formats, so your lecture notes and handouts should be your primary reference.''
 
''questions, or their formats, so your lecture notes and handouts should be your primary reference.''
  
[http://hydrodictyon.eeb.uconn.edu/eebedia/index.php/Biology_of_the_Vertebrates Return to main EEB2214 page]
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[http://hydrodictyon.eeb.uconn.edu/eebedia/index.php/Biology_of_the_Vertebrates_Fall_2012 Return to main EEB2214 page]
==Lecture 1 (27 August 2013)==
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==Lecture 1 (28 August 2012)==
  
1. What are the reasons for studying a particular group of organisms such as vertebrates?
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1. What are the reasons for studying a particular group of organisms such as vertebrates?  
  
2. When an organism is considered an "ecosystem engineer"?
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2. List the basic functions of living organisms. Provide a vertebrate example for each.
  
3. Organize the vertebrate groups from the most to the least diverse (# of spp.).
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3. What is a trade-off? Explain it in terms of one of the two examples (e.g. lizards and salamanders) discussed in lecture.
  
4. What might account for the differences in numbers of species among vertebrate groups? Roughly what fraction of animals do vertebrates comprise?
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4. Why weren't the ancestors of lizards subject to the same constraint (trade-off)? How have some lizard relatives escaped from this constraint (e.g. Komodo dragon)?
  
5. What is “cladistics”? Define “monophyly,” and describe how this differs from “paraphyly.
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5. Hydromantes salamanders have a high performance, ballistic tongue. What two trade-offs have allowed for this? 
  
6. What is a "monophyletic group"? Draw the vertebrate phylogeny and label all major monophyletic groups discussed in lecture.
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==Lecture 2 (30 August 2012)==
  
7. Define “synapomorphy” and “plesiomorphy.” Explain how a synapomorphy at one level can be plesiomorphic at another (or vice-versa).
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1. Organize the vertebrate groups (12) from the most to the least diverse (# of spp.).
  
8. Provide an example of a bad character to use when reconstructing the evolutionary history of an organism.
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2. What is a "monophyletic group"? Draw the vertebrate phylogeny and label all major monophyletic groups discussed in lecture.
  
9. What is evolutionary convergence and how could it bias a phylogenetic reconstruction?
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3. What vertebrates (use common names) belong in the Lepidosauria? Synapsida? Actinopterygii?  
  
10. What is a "paraphyletic group"? Give an example for vertebrates.
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5. What are the six major deuterostome groups named in lecture? Describe a representative from each group.
  
11. What is the blastopore? Explain the importance of understanding the embryonic development of the blastopore.
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6. Define the term "sister group". What is the sister group of hemichordates? What is the sister group of vertebrates?
  
12. What is the evolutionary significance of Pikaia?
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''*Please refer to the {{pdf|http://hydrodictyon.eeb.uconn.edu/courses/EEB2214/Phyl_tut_pptshow2010.ppt}}'''Phylogeny Tutorial''' and {{pdf|http://hydrodictyon.eeb.uconn.edu/courses/EEB2214/EEB214F06treequiz.pdf}}'''Tree Quiz''' for additional help with phylogenetic trees*''
  
==Lecture 2 (29 August 2013)==
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==Lecture 3 (4 September 2012)==
  
1. Describe three major innovations in the vertebrate history reviewed in today's lecture.
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1. Which is the sister group of Amniota?
  
2. What are ‘homologous’ structures? Provide an example.
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2. How do cephalochordates (amphioxus) bring oxygen to every cell on their bodies?  
  
3. What is bone comprised of, and how does it differ from cartilage? Provide an example of an animal, or group of animals that lack true bone.
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3. List three key traits (features) found in chordates. Why are Urochordates (sea squirts, tunicates) considered to be chordates when they do not possess any of these features as adults?
  
4. Describe the two major components of the vertebrate skeletal system. What features does each part contain?
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4. Describe the reproductive strategies of amphioxus (subphylum Cephalochordata), tunicates (subphylum Urochordata), and hagfishes (subphylum Vertebrata, Myxinoidea). Which of these lineages has the ability of reproduce clonally?  
  
5. Describe the three basic elements of the skull. What were each of these regions initially derived from?
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5. Describe the circulatory system of amphioxus (subphylum Cephalochordata), and tunicates (subphylum Urochordata). Which of these groups has a heart? An anterior enlargement of the nerve cord?
  
6. How does the tetrapod vertebral column differ from the ancestral condition, both in its morphology and capacity for movement?
 
  
7. Briefly explain the major transitions in the appendicular skeleton from sharks, to bony fishes, to lobe-finned fishes, and to terrestrial tetrapods.
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==Lecture 4 (6 September 2012)==
  
8. In ancestral vertebrates, such as bony fishes, axial muscles are divided into _________. What are the major regions of axial musculature called? With which features are the hypobranchial muscles associated?
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1. Name two traits of the feeding apparati that are shared by hagfishes and lampreys, but are different when compared to gnathostomes.  
  
9. Compare the skulls of humans and fish, how are they different and what are the evolutionary reasons for these differences?
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2. Describe the life history and reproductive behavior of the lamprey (Petromyzontoidea). In what ways does it differ from that of the hagfish (Myxinoidea)?
  
10. What is paedomorphosis? Please provide an example of a paedomorphic trait.
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3. Both hagfish and lampreys are similar in overall body size and shape (e.g., elongate, and without paired appendages). What are some key morphological/anatomical features that can be used to differentiate between these two groups?  
  
11. What are zygapophyses and what is their evolutionary significance?
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4. What is a "synapomorphy"? List the chordate traits (4). Which of these are considered synapomorphies?
  
12. Why are ribs reduced in amphibians when compared to other vertebrates?
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5. Provide a brief description of the probable morphology of the ancestral chordate, given what is known about its living descendants.
  
==Lecture 3 (3 September 2013)==
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6. List three vertebrate synapomorphies. List three gnathostomes synapomorphies. List two hagfish synapomorphies.  List a lamprey synapomorphy. 
  
1. What does the term plate tectonics refer to? Why do plate tectonics matter for vertebrate evolution? Define continental drift'’ and ‘'subduction'’, and provide examples for each.
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7. Provide a brief description of the probable morphology of the ancestral vertebrate, given what is known about its living descendants.
  
2. The first fossil evidence of vertebrates is from which geologic period? How were most of the continental land masses situated during this time, and what were the environmental conditions like?
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==Lecture 5 (11 September 2012)==
  
3. Describe some key features of Myllokunmingia. When did it evolve? Why is this fossil significant when discussing vertebrate evolution?
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1. Why are the "teeth" of hagfish (Myxinoidea) not homologous (i.e., evolutionarily related structures) to the teeth of other vertebrate lineages, like sharks, bony fishes, and mammals?
  
4. What are conodonts? When did they evolve? Why did it take so long to determine what they actually were (i.e., what organism they belonged to)? Where would you place conodont fossils on the vertebrate phylogeny?
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2. What key features place the Cambrian fossil Haikouella in the vertebrate lineage? Where would you place it on the vertebrate phylogeny?  
  
5. Describe some key features of the ostracoderms. When did they evolve, and roughly when did they go extinct? Which group experienced a major radiation during the Silurian? Some ostracoderms had hypocercal tails, and others heterocercal tails – what does this mean?
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3. What are two distinct traits seen in the Cambrian fossil Haikouichthyes (Myllokumingia) that are not seen in Haikouella?
  
6. Which group of ostracoderms is a potential ancestor lampreys? Why do scientists think that?
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4. What are "conodont fossils"? Why did it take so long to determine what they actually were (i.e., what organism they belonged to)? Where would you place conodont fossils on the vertebrate phylogeny?
  
7. Describe some similarities and differences in morphology and ecology between the two living (extant) jawless vertebrates.
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5. Which are the three mineralized tissue layers that compose the external skeleton (dermal armor) of jawless armored fishes? What are the hypothesized functions of the external skeleton? List the three major dermal armor derivatives.  
  
8. Describe how the feeding apparati of hagfishes and lampreys are different when compared to gnathostomes.
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6. Describe the mineral composition of each of the three types of fish scales. Provide an example of a type of fish that possesses each of these scale types. What are the advantages of having scales as opposed to body armor?
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9. Both hagfish and lampreys are similar in overall body size and shape (e.g., elongate, and without paired appendages). What are some key morphological/anatomical features that can be used to differentiate between these two groups? 
+
 
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10. Describe the life history and reproductive behavior of the lamprey (Petromyzontoidea). In which ways does it differ from that of the hagfish (Myxinoidea)?
+
  
11. List the six main gnathostome characteristics. Roughly when did jaws evolve? Briefly explain Mallatt’s hypothesis regarding the evolution of jaws from jawless, filter-feeding ancestors. List the four main gnathostome groups present between the Silurian and Devonian.
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==Lecture 6 (13 September 2012)==
  
12. Describe some of the major characteristics of placoderms, and how they differ from the ostracoderms. Why are the "teeth" of Dunkleosteus not homologous (i.e., evolutionarily related structures) to the teeth of other vertebrate lineages, like sharks, bony fishes, and mammals?
 
  
==Lecture 4 (5 September 2013)==
 
  
 
1.  Be able to answer the who, what, where, when, why, and how questions for vertebrate traits discussed in lecture.  For example, the origin of jaws is seen in the ancestor to what lineages? In what environment did jaws evolve? In what geological time period did jaws evolve? What anatomical feature are jaws modified from? What is the ancestral function of jaws? What is the primary function of jaws in most extant gnathostome (jawed vertebrate) lineages?
 
1.  Be able to answer the who, what, where, when, why, and how questions for vertebrate traits discussed in lecture.  For example, the origin of jaws is seen in the ancestor to what lineages? In what environment did jaws evolve? In what geological time period did jaws evolve? What anatomical feature are jaws modified from? What is the ancestral function of jaws? What is the primary function of jaws in most extant gnathostome (jawed vertebrate) lineages?
  
2. Name and describe the two major extant (living/modern) clades of Chondrichthyes. How do these differ from one-another (particularly in terms of skull morphology)?
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2. In what groups do we see both paired pectoral and pelvic fins? What is the ancestral function of possessing paired fins? Briefly describe the two theories of fin evolution.  
  
3. How do modern sharks differ from their ancestral counterparts (give at least three major characteristics)?  
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3. In what geological period do researchers think placoderms reached their highest diversity? When do chondrichthyians first show up in the fossil record?  
  
4. Which is the period called the age of fishes and why? When in geologic time did cartilaginous fishes arise?
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4. Name the two major groups within Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes) and give an example of an animal that belongs to each lineage. List some unique features for each group.
  
5. Describe the two major shark radiations. Roughly when did each occur, and how did sharks from the second wave differ from those from the first?
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5. Which are the chondrichthyian characteristics? Out of those which are considered synapomorphies?  
  
6. List and briefly describe some important characteristics of modern sharks, in terms of their:
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6. Why would it be advantageous to have a mineralized cartilaginous skeleton? What would be a disadvantage for possessing this type of skeleton?
(a) morphology (general anatomy, shape, size range)
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(b) physiology (e.g., osmopregulation)
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(c) reproductive biology (e.g., fertilization; oviparity/viviparity).
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7. What proportion of elasmobranchs are oviparous? Describe two types of viviparous eggs.
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7. Provide a brief description of reproduction in sharks. How can a female shark control parentage?
  
8. Elasmobranchs have a large diversity of tooth shapes. Describe two different shapes seen in sharks and rays. What are the functions of each of these different tooth shapes?  
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8. What is viviparity? In what vertebrate lineages do viviparous organisms occur?<br><br>
  
9. Describe the morphological differences and evolutionary transitions between Paleozoic and Modern sharks.
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==Lecture 7 (18 September 2012)==
  
10. What is peculiar about shark teeth and why they evolved such peculiarity?
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1. Elasmobranchs (sharks and rays) have a large diversity of tooth shapes. Describe two different shapes seen in sharks and rays. What are the functions of each of these different tooth shapes?  
  
11. What do manta rays, basking sharks, whale sharks and whales have in common? Which evolutionary pattern could you infer?
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2. Briefly describe the jaw movement(s) in sharks.
  
12. Describe convergent evolution and give an example among elasmobranchs.
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3. Provide the who (which lineage), why (function), and how of the "Ampullae of Lorenzini"?
  
==Lecture 5 (10 September 2013)==
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4. Why are the Ampullae of Lorenzini thought to be responsible for the unique head shapes in chondrichthyians?
  
1. List the major groups of bony fishes. When do they first appear in the fossil record?
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5. Describe two differences between rays and other elasmobranchs.
  
2. Give the three major physical characteristics shared by all Teleostomes. Give at least two physical characteristics shared by all acanthodians.
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6. Compare the jaws of elasmobranchs and bony fishes.  What are some major ways in which they are similar?  What are some ways in which they are different?
  
3. Name two important representatives of lobe-finned fishes, and describe the general habitats they inhabit. Geographically speaking, where are these lineages distributed?
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7. Describe and name three advantages of jaw protrusion in teleosts. Which traits involved in jaw protrusion are synapomorphies of teleosts?
  
4. Of the South American, African, and Australian lineages of lungfish, which most closely resembles the ancestral Devonian form? In what ways do they share a resemblance with Devonian sacropterygians?
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==Lecture 8 (20 September 2012)==
  
5. How do these three groups of lungfish differ in terms of their reliance on air-breathing? Describe two important adaptations of lung fish; one relating to feeding, and the other to tolerating drought/avoiding dessication.
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1. Define symplesiomorphy. What is the difference with synapomorphy?
  
6. When was the first living coelacanth specimen discovered? Which two people are most noted for describing it? Where was it discovered? Where else have living specimens been found since?
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2. Which are synapomorphies of osteichthyans (bony fishes)? What two extant lineages belong in Osteichthyes? Which are synapomorphies of Actinopterygians (ray-finned fishes)?  Which originated within teleosts?
  
7. Describe an unique feature of coelacanth breeding biology.
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3. What are pharyngeal jaws? What is their function? What is unique about the pharyngeal jaws of the Moray Eel?
  
8. Which group of bony fishes has experienced the largest radiation? Describe two (of four presented in lecture) ancestral, and one (of two presented) derived features of extinct Paleoniscids.
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4. Provide the who (which lineage), where (what environment), why (ancestral function), and how (physiological function) of the "swim bladder". Name an extra function of the swim bladder in Toadfish.
  
9. List the major Actinopterygian lineages (common names are fine), in order from most ancestral to most derived, along with al least one defining characteristic for each lineage.
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5. Name two regions in the world with both high freshwater and marine fish diversity.
  
10. Briefly describe ancestral and derived conditions of bony fish jaw structures, with examples of groups that possess them, in terms of degree of upper jaw fusion with skull and mobility. What are some advantages to the derived condition?
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6. What are the adaptations that allow icefish to live in the Antartic?
  
11. In which of these two African Rift Valley lakes (Victoria or Tanganyika) have cichlids diversified in terms of BOTH jaw structure and body shape? What feeding type is the ancestral cichlid presumed to be?  
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7. What adaptations have allowed fishes such as the Viperfish, Anglerfish, and Sea Devil to live in the deep ocean? In what ways are Whalefish larvae different from adults and females different from males?
  
12. What are “species flocks”? How was speciation initiated in the species flocks seen in class (divergence in body shape, feeding morphology, or evolution of color pattern differences through sexual selection)?
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8. What are the five groups of Actinopterygii? Which of these lineages is the most diverse and the least diverse? What is thought to be one possible explanation for the great diversity of Teleosts despite being evolutionarily "young" (<150 million years old)? List one Teleost synapomorphy.
  
==Lecture 6 (12 September 2013)==
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==Lecture 9 (25 September 2012)==
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1. Briefly describe the reproductive biology of the Anglerfish. Why this extreme form of sexual dimorphism is so unique to this group?
  
1. Describe three features (of several discussed in lecture) that different lineages of deep sea fishes have converged upon, and explain their adaptive significance (i.e., how they are important to the organism’s fitness; what types of pressures might have selected for them). In what sense do deep sea fishes provide a counter-example to the African cichlids?
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2. Name the only vertebrate with hermaphrodite organism that are able of self fertilization. Why this extreme form of reproduction is so unique to this species?
  
2. Which physical property of water allows for the presence of life in the ocean depths?  
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3. Describe how a lungfish can facultatively switch between breathing aquatically and aerially? List three synapomorphies for Actinistia.
  
3. Describe the reproductive biology of the Anglerfish. Why this extreme form of sexual dimorphism is so unique to this group?
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4. What are the key morphological/anatomical characteristics that differentiate coelacanths (Actinistia) from Actinopterygians and other Sarcopterygians? Describe the reproduction of coelacanths.
  
4. Describe some differences in gill structure and function among lampreys, sharks, and teleosts, in terms of (a) their support structures (or lack thereof), and (b) how they are aerated (i.e., water flow). Describe the role of the operculum in teleost respiration.
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5. List the traits that tetrapods gain and lose during the evolutionary water to land transition.
  
5. Explain the “two pump” system of teleost respiration; what are the pumps, and how do they work? What were the adaptive consequences of this innovation?
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''Answer the following "who, what, when, where, why, how" questions for each of the following questions:''
  
6. Describe the counter-current exchange mechanism of gill function; how does it work and what makes it so efficient?
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6. AESTIVATION<br>
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What is it?<br>
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Who (what lineage) discussed in today's lecture is it seen it?<br>
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When (in evolutionary time) is it first seen?<br>
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Where (geogaphically, season-wise, and habitat-wise) does it occur?<br>
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How does it work?<br>
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Why does this lineage aestivate?<br>
  
7. To which life trait of fish is the relative gill surface area related to? Explain why.
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7. INTERCRANIAL JOINT<br>
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What is it?<br>
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Who (what lineage) discussed in today's lecture is it seen it?<br>
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When (roughly in evolutionary time) is it first seen?<br>
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Where (anatomically) does it occur?<br>
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How does it work?<br>
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Why (what is the function)?<br>
  
8. What is a “swim bladder” and which structure is it derived from? What did it initially evolve for, and what was it secondarily co-opted for in some fish?  
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8. TIKTAALIK<br>
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What is it?<br>
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When (in evolutionary time)?<br>
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Where (geographically, and habitat-wise) was it found?<br>
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Why is it considered a transitional fossil between fish and tetrapods. List its fish characteristics and its tetrapod characteristics?
 +
<br><br>
  
9. Describe the two types of swimbladders, and indicate which is ancestral and which is derived. Briefly explain how each functions.
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==EXAM 1 (27 September 2012)==
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<br><br>
  
10. In which types of habitats is schooling behavior more prevalent? In what type of fish (nocturnal or diurnal) does schooling generally occur? Why? How do fish monitor the movements of others?
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==Lecture 10 (2 October 2012)==
  
11. List two main advantages to schooling behavior, and for each provide at least two lines of reasoning, complete with examples form the lecture, videos, or text. Explain the composition and significance of single- and multi-species schooling groups.
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Answer the following "who, what, when, where, why, how" questions for each of the following questions:
  
12. List the disadvantages of schooling behavior and how they may be overcome for the benefits.
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1. ACANTHOSTEGA<br>
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What is it?<br>
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When (in evolutionary time)?<br>
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Where (geographically, and habitat-wise) was it found?<br>
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Why is it considered a transitional fossil between fish and tetrapods? <br>
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List its fish characteristics and its tetrapod characteristics.
  
==Lecture 7 (19 September 2013)==
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2. ICHTYOSTEGA<br>
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What is it?<br>
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When (in evolutionary time)?<br>
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Where (geographically, and habitat-wise) was it found?<br>
 +
Why is it considered a transitional fossil between fish and tetrapods?<br>
 +
List its fish characteristics and its tetrapod characteristics.
  
1. Which are the two main fertilization strategies found in fish? What is the major difference between the two types? Contrast group and pair spawners, particularly in terms of the relative costs and benefits (i.e., trade-offs) associated with each.
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3. ZYGAPOPHYSES<br>
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What is it?<br>
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When (in evolutionary time do we first observe these)?<br>
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Where (anatomically) is it found?<br>
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Why (what is its functon)?
  
2. Give an example of a group characterized by internal fertilization, and describe the relevant structure(s) involved.
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4. What key tetrapod trait is first seen in Acanthostega and Ichthyostega?
  
3. Name two types of eggs laid by fish, and describe them in terms of where they are laid, and their advantages and disadvantages. Provide an example for each.
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5. Where on the vertebrate phylogeny do Tiktaalik, Acanthostega, and Ichthyostega map out?
  
4. What is sex-role reversal? Describe an example in fishes.
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6. When do amphibians first appear in the fossil record?  
  
5. Explain the resource defense mating system. Describe the resource defense mating system of three-spine stickleback, in terms of what constitutes the limited resource, what males fight for, and what kinds of evolutionary implications this has for the physical features of males.
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7. Explain the hotspot of amphibian diversity in the southeast of North America.
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<br><br>
  
6. Describe some of the strategies used by fish to protect their offspring from predators.
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==Lecture 11 (4 October 2012)==
  
7. Explain the difference between parental caregivers and cuckolders in bluegill sunfish. When does each male form sexually mature relative to females? What are the two types of cuckolders, and what is the difference between them?
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1. What are the adaptations that allow caecilians to successfully live fossorially (underground)? Describe caecilian reproduction. Describe a unique caecilian parental behavior that has only recently observed.
  
8. Discuss the pros and cons of providing parental care. Specifically which are the advantages and disadvantages of this behavior by male fish reviewed in class?
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2. What morphological characteristics does Eocaecilia share with extant caecilians. What morphological characteristics differ between the two?
  
9. Honest signals are traits that provide a potential mate with an estimation of the overall potential parter quality. Provide an example of this discussed in class.
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3. What is the geographic distribution of living caudates? In which way are caudates (i.e., salamanders and newts) important to ecosystems?
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10. What is a lek? Provide an example from the lecture, videos, or text.
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11. Describe the trade-off (or evolutionary cost/benefit) in some species that results from strong sexual selection on male coloration.
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4. Complete the phrase: "All newts are salamanders but...."
  
12. Describe sex change in the blue-headed wrasse, in terms of females, primary males, and secondary males. How long does it take to go from female to male?
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5. Please describe salamander reproduction (as seen in most lineages). Why is this considered indirect internal fertilization?
  
==Lecture 8 (24 September 2013)==
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6. In which two extreme environments anurans are not found?
  
1. What is a tetrapod? When did tetrapods first invade land?
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7. List the skeletal features of a frog that allows it to be a great jumper. How does the skeleton of Triadobatrachus differ from that of a modern frog? In what ways is it similar? What time period does Triadobatrachus date back to? When in geologic time was the split between anurans and their sister group, the caudates (from Lecture 10)?
  
2. What is Pangaea? When did it form? How, and why, was the climate different in northern continents, such as Greenland where some of the most important early tetrapod fossils were found?
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8. Why are amphibians (specifically anurans and caudates) so important in the proper functioning of an ecosystem?  
  
3. By when were the major lineages leading to amphibians, and also to reptiles & mammals established, and what are these two early clades called?
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9. What are the anatomical, physiological, and ecological changes a tadpole undergoes as it metamorphoses into a frog? Why is this transition considered more drastic in a tadpole, as opposed to a larval salamander?
  
4. Eusthenopteron was considered a close relative of tetrapods; what is it that makes it more a fish with tetrapod features, rather than a tetrapod with fish features? In the 1990s Panderichthys became the favored tetrapod ancestor; what made this specimen more tetrapod-like?
 
  
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==Lecture 12 (9 October 2012)==
  
Answer the following "who, what, when, where, why, how" questions for each of the following questions:
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1. Identify synapomorphies for caecilians (Apoda) and frogs (Anura). Which are the amphibian synapomorphies?
  
5. ACANTHOSTEGA
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2. What are the two types of skin glands founds in all living amphibians? Please list the functions of each gland type.  
  
What is it?
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3. Please provide several examples of defensive behavior seen in amphibians.
  
When (in evolutionary time)?
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4. When did the amniotes diversify? Which other diversification event coincides with the one in amniotes? What could be inferred from this coincidence?
  
Where (geographically, and habitat-wise) was it found?
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5. In what ways were the ancestors of amniotes still dependent on water?  Which adaptations have amniotes evolved to lessen their dependence on water and become largely terrestrial?  In what ways have some groups of amphibians also overcome this dependence on water?
  
Why is it considered a transitional fossil between fish and tetrapods?
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6. Describe the amniotic egg and the function of each of the three membranes.
  
List its fish characteristics and its tetrapod characteristics.
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7. Which are the synapomorphies of each of the following lineages: amniotes, sauropsids, lepidosaurs? Draw the amniote phylogeny. Draw the tetrapod phylogeny.
  
6. ICHTYOSTEGA
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8. What is tail autonomy? Who is it found in? How does it work?
  
What is it?
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9. What is the evolutionary/adaptive significance of tail autotomy? Which structures in the tail do not regenerate when it grows back? What are these structures replaced with?
  
When (in evolutionary time)?
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==Lecture 13 (11 October 2012)==
  
Where (geographically, and habitat-wise) was it found?
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1. What is TSD (temperature-dependent sex determination)? In what lineages discussed in today's lecture is it found in?
  
Why is it considered a transitional fossil between fish and tetrapods?
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2. What could be a potential effect of global warming in Tuatara conservation? Explain.
 
   
 
   
List its fish characteristics and its tetrapod characteristics.
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3. Compare and contrast the diversity, morphology, reproductive behavior, ecology, and geographical distribution of sphenodons (tuataras) to that of squamates (lizards, snakes).
  
7. TIKTAALIK
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4. What is the functional significance of the diapsid skull evolution?
  
What is it?
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5. What are the challenges of living in a desert environment? How do squamates cope with each of these challenges? In what ways are lizards able to thermoregulate? Explain how some ectotherms can be homeotherms.
  
When (in evolutionary time)?
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6. Why ectotherms are better than endotherms at using patchy (spatial and temporal) resources?
  
Where (geographically, and habitat-wise) was it found?
+
7. List the synapomorphies of snakes. Is the loss of hind limbs and reduction of pelvic girdle a snake synapomorphy? Provide support for your answer.
  
Why is it considered a transitional fossil between fish and tetrapods. List its fish characteristics and its tetrapod characteristics?
+
8. Explain why lizards are not a monophyletic group.
  
 +
9. What is thought to be the most important feature for the evolutionary success of snakes?
  
8. When and where was Tiktaalik discovered? In what ways is this specimen more tetrapod-like than Panderichthys, but still a true fish-tetrapod intermediate?
 
  
9. What is the significance of the finding that Acanthostega and Ichthyostega have 8 toes? Who made this discovery? When? What are early tetrapod limbs presumed to have evolved for anyways?
+
==Lecture 14 (16 October 2012)==
  
10. Where on the vertebrate phylogeny do Tiktaalik, Acanthostega, and Ichthyostega map out?  
+
1. What are the parts of a turtle shell? What is the shell composed of? In what ways is having a shell beneficial? How is it disadvantageous (not beneficial)?
  
11. To which two major tetrapod groups do Eogyrinus and Chroniosuchus belong to? What are Carboiniferous tetrapods considered non-amniote tetrapods rather than amphibians? When did the Carboniferous tetrapods become extinct?
+
2. When did turtles evolve? Briefly describe the process of morphological transition between an early amniot body plan and the derived turtle morphology. 
  
12. What makes Crassigyrinus particularly interesting from an evolutionary standpoint? What are the Microsaurs, and which modern groups are they most similar to?  What did these early tetrapods eat?
+
3. Name the three potential phylogenetic placements of turtles and each of the major lines of evidence supporting them.
  
==EXAM 1 (26 September 2013)==
+
4. Which is the importance of the trochlear process in turtle evolution?
<br><br>
+
  
==Lecture 9 (1 October 2013)==
+
5. Provide at least 6 turtle synapomorphies. Which of these synapomorphies is seen only in modern lineages of turtles? In what way do modern turtles differ from the 220 million year old fossil Proganochelys? What are the similarities between this fossil and modern turtles?
  
1. List the three synapomorphies that unite all amphibians.
+
6. What are the two major lineages of turtles? What is the key morphological/anatomical difference between members of these two lineages?
  
2. What are the three major groups (classes) of amphibians? Provide some characteristics of each.
+
7. Which kind of environments do turtles avoid (judging by their global distribution patterns)?
  
3. Name at least two fossil amphibians. When do they date back to? Where were they discovered?
+
8. How does morphology differ between turtles that are primarily terrestrial and those that spend most of their time in the water?
  
4. Define paedomorphosis. In what major group of amphibians would you likely encounter this? What is the difference between facultative paedomorphosis and obligate paedomorphosis?
 
  
5. List at least three characteristics that distantly related cave-dwelling salamanders have converged on.
 
  
6. What are some differences in morphology between semi-aquatic frogs, treefrogs, hopping/walking frogs, and primarily aquatic frogs?
+
==Lecture 15 (18 October 2012)==
  
7. What two types of glands do all amphibians have in their skin? Additionally, what is another type of gland that may be found in some amphibian species that inhabit dry environments? Provide some functions of each gland type.
+
1. Describe the range of diet in turtles. Cite one example of specialization.
  
8. How do some amphibians prevent evaporative water loss when living in harsh (i.e., dry) habitats? Who has more water-permeable skin, a leopard frog (a semi-aquatic frog) who has steady access to water or a spadefoot toad that lives in the desert?
+
2. Regardless of what type of habitat they live in, all female turtles must come on land to lay their eggs. Please comment on the reproductive behavior of turtles (e.g., egg laying behavior, presence or absence of parental care).
  
9. Match the following groups with their respective types of fertilization: A) most frogs, B) most salamanders, and C) caecilians: 1) internal fertilization, no copulatory organ; 2) internal fertilization w/ copulatory organ, 3) external fertilization. What is the difference between direct and indirect internal fertilization.
+
3. How is the sex of a turtle determined? In a population of mostly males, a female who could produce female offspring would have higher fitness (its progeny would be more successful in finding mates). Could a female turtle modify its nest making behavior in order to have higher fitness? If so, what would be a reason for the evolution of temperature-dependent sex determination?
  
10. List the four basic modes of salamander reproduction.
+
4. The pivotal temperature in a turtle clutch (the temperature at which above it would produce females and below it would produce males) varies across species from 25 to 30°C. What are the implications of this in the face of global warming?
  
11. What is parental care? Which major groups of amphibians exhibit parental care? How does parental care differ between these groups?
+
5. Which species of turtle could be considered endothermic and which are the adaptations that allow this condition? What are the benefits and how is this reflected behaviorally?
  
12. Provide an example of an exception for each of the following rules: 1) Most salamanders have internal fertilization. 2) Most frogs have external fertilization.
+
6. What is peculiar about turtle circulation and which advantages it offers to their behavior?
  
13. Are reproductive modes more diverse in anurans or salamanders? Explain. What is the ancestral mode of reproduction in frogs?
+
7. Describe how turtles breathe, given the fact that their ribs are fused to their shell. Why is breathing in turtles more energetically expensive than other tetrapods?
  
14. Explain why males of many amphibians posses traits that make them more conspicuous.
+
8. Describe five synapomorphies of the Archosauria. In what ways have these synapomorphies allowed archosaurs to be highly efficient and successful predators?
  
15. Describe the three different kinds of mating systems of salamanders, and provide an example for each. Which mating system is characteristic of the most sexually dimorphic of all salamanders?
+
9. What is a synapomorphy of the Crurotarsi? Where are crocodilians located relative to dinosaurs on the phylogeny? Which EXTANT group is most closely related to crocodilians? Why aren't these two extant lineages considered sister groups?
  
16. Explain what a resource defense mating system is, and which groups (and/or species) exhibit it. How does this differ from non-resource based systems? Give an example of such a system, and explain how it works.
+
10. What are the three major lineages of crocodilians. Discuss a few major morphological and ecological characteristics of each these families.
  
==Lecture 10 (3 October 2013)==
 
  
1. By the Devonian, which two major tetrapod clades were established? Explain which group the Seymouriamorphs fall under, and list a few of their characteristics. What were the Diadectomorphs?
 
  
2. When did the first amniotes likely arise? When does the first evidence of the amniotic egg appear? What are the three distinct lineages of amniotes? What are their defining characteristics? Which groups are ultimately derived from each of these lines?
+
==Lecture 16 (23 October 2012)==
  
3. Were anapsids more diverse in the Carboniferous, or in the Cenozoic? What type of anapsid currently exists? When did diapsids first appear, and what were they like?  
+
1. Describe two crocodilian synapomorphies. What type of predator is a crocodilian? How have these synapomorphies allowed crocodilians to exploit this particular type of predatory strategy?
  
4. How do tuataras differ from other lepidosaurs? What are the three major groups of squamates? Does the term lizard refer to a monophyletic grouping? Why or why not?
+
2. Which benefits brings the ectotherm condition of modern crocodiles and why this condition evolved from endothermic ancestors?
  
5. What mode of fertilization do all squamates have? How is fertilization achieved? Describe an advantage of this form of fertilization. (Note: this form of fertilization may result in multiple paternity; what other mode of fertilization (in which other group) may also result in multiple paternity?).
+
3. How does the crocodilian heart differ from that of squamates? Briefly describe the shunting mechanism and its functional significance. In addition to the heart, what else enables crocodilians to stay submerged under water for long periods of time.
  
6. What is an amniotic egg? List its basic components. Explain some differences in egg shell characteristics among crocodilians, turtles and lepidosaurs, in terms permeability of shell to water and albumin reserves. How does water uptake affect embryonic mass in some groups? Provide examples.
+
4. Describe at least one specialized morphological trait and at least one specialized behavioral trait that allows crocodilians to be deadly predators.  
  
7. In which kinds of environments are hard vs. soft-shelled eggs laid? Why? What implications does this have for offspring fitness? Explain how water uptake, temperature, and the amount of yolk used up by the embryo are related in snapping turtles.
+
5. If we know both birds and crocodilians build and defend nests, care for hatchlings, and have complex social behavior, what can we infer about the extinct lineages of Archosauria?
  
8. Why don’t all reptiles lay rigid-shelled eggs that can survive dry conditions? What are “parchment-shelled” eggs, and where might you find them?
+
6. What do crocodilians and turtles have in common regarding their reproductive biology? How do they differ?
  
9. What is temperature-dependent sex determination? Which groups does it occur in? What temperatures (hot/cold) determine which sex (male/female) in each group?
+
7. What is a dinosaur?
  
10. List four major mating systems exhibited by squamates, and provide an example for each. Which type(s) of mating systems are more characteristic of Iguanian lizards? Sceroglossine lizards?
+
8. Briefly describe the characteristics of the three groups of marine reptiles (which coexisted with dinosaurs) discussed in class.
  
11. Explain the difference between female-defense and resource-defense mating systems in lizards? Give an example of a group that exhibits the former. In which other groups have we seen these types of mating systems?
+
9. What lineage is sister to the Crurotarsi? What group is sister to pterosaurs?
  
12. In which group of lizards has the tongue been freed to evolve functions other than feeding? Explain how has this been facilitated, and give an example of such a function. Describe the typical mating system of scleroglossans.
+
10. Name some of the important evolutionary trends in Ornithodirans.
  
==Lecture 11 (8 October 2013)==
 
  
1. What is the most diverse group of squamates?
 
  
2. Reduction or loss of limbs is a common evolutionary theme in squamates. Which is the most diverse group of limbless squamates? Which characteristic of the jaws has lead to this group’s great success?
+
==Lecture 17 (25 October 2012)==
  
3. Give an example of how body forms of lizards are correlated with variation in ecology. Give an example of convergent evolution in lizards.
+
1. Describe some of the morphological characteristics related to flight, and collectively, their ecological implications. What is the first lineage of vertebrates that we see flight as a mode of locomotion? How were they flying (i.e., flapping or gliding)? What are the two main lineages of this group and how do they differ?
  
4. Describe some adaptations for arboreality in chameleons.
+
2. Which morphological synapomorphy of pterosaurs resembles their name?
  
5. How does body size relate to general diet in lizards? Explain why monitor lizard feeding behavior is unusual.
+
3. In what ways were pterosaurs morphologically and ecologically diverse? Name at least three feeding styles.
  
6. Explain how surface-active and fossorial legless forms of lizards differ in other aspects of morphology. Which are the “most specialized burrowing legless reptiles”? What about them makes them so?
+
4. Name the possible functional hypotheses of pterosaur head and snout crests.
  
7. From which clade of squamates are snakes derived?  What implications does the elongate body of snakes have for other organs?
+
5. What might have contributed to the decline and ultimate extinction
 +
of pterosaurs?
  
8. What do snakes use their tongues for? How does the snake tongue work?
+
6. List the synapomorphies for the following clades: Ornithodira, Pterosauria, and Dinosauria.
  
9. Describe some adaptations of snakes for feeding on relatively large objects (e.g., egg, goats). How do generalized terrestrial snakes tend to kill their prey? What kinds of physical features do active terrestrial foragers tend to possess? What about highly arboreal forms? What about vipers?
+
7. Name a reason that allowed dinosaurs to be giant.
  
10. Name and briefly explain five types of snake locomotion.
+
8. What extant lineage needs to be included in order for Dinosauria to be considered a monophyletic grouping? What is the ancestral condition of Dinosauria, bipedalism or quadrupedalism?
  
==Lecture 12 (10 October 2013)==
+
9. What are the two major groups in Dinosauria? How does the pelvic arrangement differ between these groups? Which of these groups is the one leading to birds, and why are the common names of these groups misleading?
  
1. What is the fundamental difference between ectothermy and endothermy? Why are the terms “cold” vs. “warm” blooded inaccurate?
+
10. List four characteristics of the two main dinosaur lineages.
  
2. What types of physiological and behavioral processes of are affected by variation in body temperature in reptiles? Give examples for each case.
 
  
3. What is the preferred body temperature of desert iguanas? What behaviors or physiological processes is this temperature optimal for in the desert iguana?
+
==EXAM 2 (30 October 2012)==
 +
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4. What kinds of environmental variables affect a lizard’s body temperature? Why is evaporative cooling and water uptake more important in amphibians than in reptiles? What exactly limits an amphibian’s ability to warm up by basking in the sun? Explain how high Andean lizards and frogs respond differently to temperature.
+
==Lecture 18 (1 November 2012)==
  
5. Explain how marine iguanas deal with the temperature extremes (cool ocean waters vs. hot black rocks) they face.
 
  
6. Describe several ways in which ectotherms deal with very cold temperatures. Explain the difference between freeze-tolerance and super-cooling and give examples of species or groups that engage in each.
+
==Lecture 19 (6 November 2012)==
  
7. What is a thermo-conformer (make a contrast with heterotherm and ectotherm)? What is gigantothermy (contrast with endotherm), and give an example of a group that exhibits this.
+
1. What is the functional significance of the differences in the pelvic arrangement between the two major groups in Dinosauria?
  
8. Explain the difference between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism. Which do ectotherms make use of? Describe the advantages and disadvantages of each.  
+
2. List six Ornithiscian synapomorphies. Give at least four examples of ornithiscian dinosaurs.
  
9. Describe some differences between active foragers and sit and wait predators. Give an example for each.
+
3. Comment on the diets of ornithiscians and saurischians. In what ways do you think diet has influenced their anatomy (i.e., think how the rib cage and pelvis orientation differs between these two lineages)?
  
10. Explain how energy allocation differs between ectotherms and endotherms. Which has a higher conversion efficiency? What types of adaptations of ectotherms help improve their energy efficiency?
+
4. What do Ornithiscians and Sharks have in common (besides being vertebrates)?
  
==Lecture 13 (15 October 2013)==
+
5. What do Stegosaurus and Ankylosaurus have in common (besides being Thyreophora)?
  
1. In which way is the phylogenetic placement of turtles contentious? Draw the amniote cladogram (with the phylogenetic placement of turtles) that we will follow in class.
+
6. Which are the theories for the diversity of head structures in Ornithiscians?
  
2. What are the parts of a turtle shell? What is the shell composed of? In what ways is having a shell beneficial? How is it disadvantageous?
+
7. What are the major saurischian synapomorphies? What are the two main groups within Saurischia? Which is the lineage leading to birds?
  
3. In what way do modern turtles differ from the 220 million year old fossil Proganochelys? What are the similarities between this fossil and modern turtles?
+
8. What was the Sauropod diet and which morphological adaptations are associated with it?
  
4. What are the two major lineages of turtles? What is the key morphological/anatomical difference between members of these two lineages?
+
==Lecture 20 (8 November 2012)==
  
5. Describe how turtles breathe, given the fact that their ribs are fused to their shell. Why is breathing in turtles more energetically expensive than other tetrapods?
+
1. Feathers evolved in Theropods, why wasn't there a need to evolve feathers in Sauropods?
  
6. How does morphology differ between turtles that are primarily terrestrial and those that spend most of their time in the water? Regardless of what type of habitat they live in, all female turtles must come on land to lay their eggs. Please comment on the reproductive behavior of turtles (e.g., egg laying behavior, presence or absence of parental care).
+
2. Are hollow bones restricted to flying animals? Justify.
  
7. Provide three examples of sexual dimorphism observed in turtles. Why is the shape of the male's plastron important in reproduction? In many species of turtles, which sex generally obtain larger body size?
+
3. List the Theropoda synapomorphies. What are the three main lineages within Theropoda? Name a representative and distinctive characteristic of each group.
  
8. Are turtles carnivores, herbivores, or omnivores? Comment on the diet of turtles by providing examples of what they eat.
+
4. What fossil evidence provides support that saurischians had parental care in the form of nest building and attendance?
  
9. List four ways that allow turtles to overwinter underwater?
+
5. What is a morphological distinctive feature of maniraptors? In what ways has this synapomorphy contributed to flight in modern birds?
  
10. Comment on the conservation status of turtles. What anthropogenic (man-made) causes threaten this vertebrate lineage?
+
6. What is Archaeopteryx? When was it discovered and what geological period does it date back to? How large was it?  
  
11. Which EXTANT group is most closely related to crocodilians? Why aren't these two extant lineages considered sister groups? What are the three major extant lineages of Crocodylia?
+
7. Why was the discovery of Archaeopteryx so significant? In what ways is Archaeopteryx similar to both dinosaurs and modern birds? In what ways does it differ from Aves (birds)?
  
12. What type of predator is a crocodilian? What anatomic features enable crocodilians to be effective predators? What's unique about the skin of a crocodilian? How does the crocodilian heart differ from that of squamates? Briefly describe the shunting mechanism and its functional significance. In addition to the heart, what else enables crocodilians to stay submerged under water for long periods of time?
+
8. What are some proposed reasons feathers evolved? What are the proposed theories for the evolution of flight?
  
13. In what ways are the salt glands of crocodilians different than those belonging to lizards or sea turtles?
+
9. What came first, feathers, flight, or dinosaurs? Describe the evolutionary relationship between feathers and flight in birds.
  
14. List three factors that threaten crocodilians.
+
==Lecture 21 (13 November 2012)==
 +
1. What is the most important factor for dictating avian mating systems? Describe the differences between altricial vs. precocial offspring. How does precocial vs. altricial condition of offspring relate to the type of mating system exhibited by the parents?
  
==Lecture 14 (17 October 2013)==
+
2. Are most birds truly monogamous? Explain the different forms of "monogamy" and how each parent benefits from different forms of monogamy. When would each type be selected for?
  
1. What three geological periods comprise the Mesozoic? How long did the Mesozoic last? Comment on the climate of the Mesozoic, as well as the distribution of landmasses during each of these Mesozoic periods.
+
3. What influences the form of polygamous mating systems? What factors underlie the differences between male & female interests in reproduction?
  
2. Provide the names of at least two major extinct Lepidosauropmorpha lineages. What are two major and extinct lineages in the Archosauromorpha?
+
4. Why are males more likely to desert a reproductive alliance than females? What makes parental care such an important investment; i.e., what are the potential costs?
  
3. What group is sister to pterosaurs? Name the possible functional hypotheses of pterosaur head and snout crests.
+
5. Briefly describe the polygamy threshold model. Is it better to be polygamous in a higher quality habitat, or monogamous in a lower quality habitat? Explain.
  
4. If we know both birds and crocodilians build and defend nests, care for hatchlings, and have complex social behavior, what can we infer about the extinct lineages of Archosauria? What is the first lineage of vertebrates that we see flight as a mode of locomotion? Can you provide two other vertebrate lineages that have evolved flight? How were pterosaurs flying (i.e., flapping or gliding)?
+
6. What limits clutch size (= number of eggs laid in a given reproductive bout) in birds?
  
5. In what ways were pterosaurs morphologically and ecologically diverse?
+
7. Describe the characteristics of the cleidoic shell; i.e., what’s it made of, what functions does it serve, and what are the advantages and disadvantages?
  
6. What extant lineage needs to be included in order for Dinosauria to be considered a monophyletic grouping? What is the ancestral condition of Dinosauria, bipedalism or quadrupedalism?
+
8. Why do females get to be so choosy about males? How do males try to convince females that they are the best possible male?
  
7. Name some of the important evolutionary trends in Ornithodirans.
+
==Lecture 22 (15 November 2012)==
  
8. What are the two major groups in Dinosauria? How does the pelvic arrangement differ between these groups? Which of these groups is the one leading to birds, and why are the common names of these groups misleading?  
+
1. How do mammals and birds differ regarding to their genetic system of sex determination?
  
9. Give at least three examples of ornithiscian dinosaurs. What are the three major groups within Saurischia? Which one of these lineages is ancestral to birds?
+
2. Briefly explain in your own words how Bernoulli’s principle applies to flight in birds.
  
10. What do Stegosaurus and Ankylosaurus have in common?
+
3. What is the main difference between dynamic soaring and high aspect ratio wings? How does this relate to the flight styles they are adapted to?
  
==Lecture 15 (22 October 2013)==
+
4. How does hovering flight (in hummingbirds) differ from flapping flight in other birds?
  
1. What are some morphological/anatomical differences between Dromaeosaurs like Deinonychus, Archaeopteryx, and modern birds? What are some skeletal similarities?
+
5. Name one skeletal and one muscular modification that provides evidence for birds' commitment to flight.
  
2. What is digitigrade walking? Comment on the trend seen in hand bones starting with saurischians and ending with modern birds.
+
6. Why do birds have higher metabolic rates (when compared to other major vertebrate groups)?
  
3. What are some theories of the evolution of flight in birds? What adaptations were made for sustained flight during the Cretaceous? What adaptations do modern birds have for flight? List at least six.
+
7. Which are two adaptations in the jaws of birds that are related to their flying lifestyle?
  
4. Provide three different examples of Cretaceous birds that went extinct. What is a key difference between Ichthyorniformes and Hesperornithiformes?
+
8. How do bird tongues differ from mammal tongues?
  
5. Name the parts of a feather. How can you tell the feather is a flight feather or not? What are three major functions of feathers?
+
9. List the unusual feeding behaviors of birds seen in class. Describe your favorite!
  
6. What additional function do manikin birds use their feathers for (think about the short movie clip we saw in class today)?
+
==Lecture 23 (27 November 2012)==
  
7. List the seven characteristic skeletal features of a bird.
+
1. Explain the differences between the hearts of Turtles, Lizards, Crocodiles, Birds and Mammals.
  
8. Contrast the respiratory system of birds to those of mammal. Which respiratory system is more efficient? What is an alternative advantage of the avian respiratory system?
+
2. What is the importance of unidirectional flow in the avian lungs?  
  
9. Comment on bird metabolism. Which group of birds have exceptional metabolisms?  
+
3. Why unidirectional flow makes birds the group with the most efficient respiration among vertebrates?  
  
10. How do some birds cope with low food abundance during the winter in temperate environments?
+
4. Explain how avian respiratory system structures ensure unidirectional flow in the lungs?
 
+
==Lecture 16 (24 October 2013)==
+
 
+
1. How do the the beaks (or bills) of birds vary with feeding habits? Provide examples.
+
 
+
2. What is ''cranial kinesis''?
+
 
+
3. A cowbird is primarily a seedeater, a red-winged blackbird is an insectivore, and a rusty blackbird eats both seeds and insects Comment on the differences in the skull and beak anatomy/morphology of these three closely related species.
+
 
+
4. What is a behavioral adaptation ''Phalaropes'' possess to aid in feeding on zooplankton? Mechanically speaking, how do ''Phalaropes'' eat?
+
 
+
5. Provide three examples of tool use in birds. Which tool-using group of birds are considered to be among the most intelligent of all avians (birds)?
+
 
+
6. Name the parts of the digestive system of a bird. What is the function of each part/organ? Are birds capable of changing digestive physiology when there is a shift in diet?
+
 
+
7. Provide at least two unique morphological, behavioral or physiological characteristics of the hoatzin. Is this interesting species considered to be highly derived or more primitive in relation to other modern birds?
+
 
+
==Lecture 17 (29 October 2013)==
+
 
+
1. Describe the differences between altricial vs. precocial offspring. How does precocial vs. altricial condition of offspring relate to the type of mating system exhibited by the parents? Describe each type and provide at least one example of a bird taxa that possesses each type of young.
+
 
+
2. What is ''brood parasitism''? List at least two examples of brood parasites.
+
 
+
3. What is the difference between ''behavioral monogamy'' and ''genetic or sexual monogamy''? What recent molecular technique as enabled scientists to determine that genetic polygamy is far more common than earlier thought? What influences the formation of polygamous mating systems? What factors underlie the differences between male & female interests in reproduction?
+
 
+
4. What are ''extra-pair copulations (EPC)''? In what ways do males try to prevent their mates from gaining EPCs? Provide examples of each strategy.
+
 
+
5. What is a ''polygyny threshold model''? In what situation would a female choose to be a secondary female (i.e., join a male-female pair) over pairing with a non-polygamous male?
+
 
+
6. What is a ''lek''? This is most commonly seen in birds with what type of hatchling? Provide at least three examples of lekking birds discussed in class or seen in the movie today.
+
 
+
7. List several examples showing how sexual selection, specifically female choice, has led to bizarre male traits (ornamentation, behavior, etc.)
+
 
+
==EXAM 2 (31 October 2013)==
+
<br>
+
  
 +
5. Why birds have to eat so frequently?
  
==Lecture 18 (5 November 2013)==
+
6. List the functions of the crop.
  
1. What is eusociality? In what group of animals, specifically insects, is eusociality frequently seen? What are three castes that eusocial animals might belong to?
+
7. What are the differences between the two parts of the "stomach" in birds (i.e. Proventriculus and Gizzard)?
  
2. What are W. D. Hamilton's contribution to the study of animal social behavior? Explain Hamilton's rule? Who is John Maynard-Smith? Define inclusive fitness.
+
8. Discuss the causes (in terms of resources) and consequences (in terms of physiology and behavior) of migration in birds.
  
3. What is haplodiploidy? How does haplodiploidy play a part in the evolution and maintenance of eusociality and cooperative breeding in Hymenoptera?
+
9. Which is the sister group of mammals? How do these two groups differ in their skull characteristics?
  
4. List six different factors that may play a role in the evolution of cooperative breeding in birds.
+
==Lecture 24 (29 November 2012)==
  
5. Provide three examples of cooperative breeding birds from today's lecture. What seems to be a determining factor of cooperative breeding in each example?
+
1. What’s the difference between a synapomorphy and a trend? Describe six important trends in the Synapsida? Which is the only surviving group of synapsids?
  
6. Define polygynandry. Which bird species discussed in class possesses this mating system?
+
2. Name the main four groups of synapsids. Are they paraphyletic or monophyletic?
  
7. What are some tactics cooperative breeding birds use to avoid inbreeding?
+
3. Describe major features mammals have that are evident from the fossil record.
  
8. Define ecological stochasticity. How has this contributed to the evolution and maintenance of cooperative breeding in the white-fronted bee-eaters of Africa?
+
4. What were early mammals, such as Morganucodon ca. 200 MYA, like?
  
==Lecture 19 (7 November 2013)==
+
5. The "nocturnal bottleneck theory" suggests that mammalian sensory traits were influenced by an extended period of adaptation to nocturnality during the Mesozoic Era. Describe which important traits evolved as adaptations to nocturnal habits in mammals.
  
1. What three major trends or innovations have led to the tremendous radiation of mammals over evolutionary time?
+
6. Which changes in the jaws lead to the transition from the reptilian to mammalian jaw joint? How does this relate to hearing?
  
2. When in geological time do the first synapsids appear? Comment on their body form.
+
7. What are the three major groups of extant mammals? What does the mammalian phylogeny look like?
  
3. Describe the four different skull morphologies seen in amniotes. Which type of skull do mammals possess?
+
8. How are monotremes typically distinguished from the other two? Is this a good way of characterizing a group?
  
4. What are pelycosaurs? When in geological time were they most abundant? What are two hypothesized functions of the sail in Dimetrodon?
+
9. What are the two major groups within Monotremata? Give examples of species and their major characteristics.
  
5. What are therapsids? What are some anatomical characteristics of therapsids (provide three appendicular skeletal features and one cranial feature). What are cynodonts?
+
==Lecture 25 (December 4, 2012)==
  
6. How do the a) skull/jaw morphologies, b) ear morphologies, and c) teeth of reptilians, cynodonts, and mammals differ?
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1. Describe the major characteristics of marsupials. Where do they occur? Where are they most diverse? Give examples of some species and their characteristics.
  
7. What is the name of the earliest fossil mammal found? When did it live? Where were the fossils found? Comment on its body size, feeding habits, etc.
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2. What is the difference between altricial and precocial offspring? Which are the advantages and disadvantages of each parenting strategy?
  
8. What is evidence for endothermy in early mammals? Name two things this key innovation has allowed for in mammals.
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3. What is the advantage of the particular way of marsupial reproduction (compared to placental mammals) and in which environments this reproductive strategy would be advantageous?
  
9. What are the three lineages of mammals? Provide an example for each. What are key differences (think about reproduction and development of young) between these lineages?
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4. Which major evolutionary feature characterizes Eutheria? How diverse is this group?
  
10. What are a few mammalian synapomorphies?
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5. Eutheria is characterized by prolonged retention of offspring. Describe the main ways in which this is accomplished.
  
11. What are the advantages of lactation in mammals?
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6. Describe some advantages and disadvantages of eutherian reproduction, particularly with regard to prolonged retention of young.
  
12. What is mammalian hair composed of? What are the five functions of hair/fur in mammals?
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7. Which is the characteristic that unites placentals and marsupials into the clade Therians?
  
==Lecture 20 (12 November 2013)==
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8. List the advantages of lactation. Evolutionarily, from which muscles do facial muscles evolve from?
  
1. Are Homo sapiens the only humans ever to walk on Earth? If not, provide examples of other humans. What is believed to be the oldest homonid fossil? How long have homonids been around? What is the shortest lived Homonid species, evolutionarily speaking, that was discussed in lecture today? What was the longest lived?
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9. Describe the function of nasal turbinates.
  
2. How does Lucy compare to that of chimpanzees and modern humans, in regards to pelvis, foot, skull, and jaw shape and structure?
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==Lecture 26 (December 6, 2012)==
  
3. How do Neaderthals differ, skeletally speaking, from modern humans? Comment on the social behavior of Neanderthals. In what ways is it not accurate to refer to someone displaying barbaric behavior as a "Neanderthal'"?
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1. Give examples (at least 5) of convergent evolution between marsupials and placentals.
  
4. What are the remaining two mammalian groups discussed in today's lecture? Comment on the diversity and distribution of each of these groups. List at least three representative families in each, with example of animals for the families. Name a
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2. When did the great american biotic interchange take place? List the main groups that moved northwards and southwards.
key feature (synapomorphy) for each major group that unites the families within it.
+
  
5. In what ways are humans the MOST successful animals on the planet? How have raccoons adapted to become one of the most successful urban mammals (besides humans)?
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3. What evidence supports the overkill hypothesis of the extinction of terrestrial megafauna? Mention one alternative hypothesis.
  
6. Comment on the locomotion of ungulates. On what part of their limb are ungulates walking on?
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4. Describe the morphological traits associated to general insectivory in mammals and provide particular examples.
  
7. Why do you think it took evolutionary biologists so long to figure out where whales and dolphins fit in the vertebrate phylogeny?
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5. Name the convergent clades that have evolved specialized insectivory to catch ants and termites and describe their morphological adaptations.
  
8. What is the background extinction rate believed to be? How have humans affected the extinction rate? List the major causes of biodiversity loss on Earth. Of these factors, which one has the most significance on the extinction of species?
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6. Why are bats so special among mammals?
  
==Lecture 21 (14 November 2013)==
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7. Describe the morphological traits associated to omnivory in mammals and provide particular examples.
  
==Lecture 22 (19 November 2013)==
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8. Why are rodents so successful? Describe their feeding strategies.
  
==Lecture 23 (21 November 2013)==
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9. Describe the morphological traits associated to herbivory in mammals and provide particular examples.
  
==Lecture 24 (December 3, 2013)==
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10. Describe the morphological traits associated to carnivory in mammals and provide particular examples.
  
==Lecture 25 (December 5, 2013)==
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11. Which mammalian clades are fully aquatic? Which is the sister group of cetaceans?
  
 
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Latest revision as of 16:21, 9 August 2014

Note: These study questions are not comprehensive. They are meant to supplement your lecture notes as you review them, and alert you to the ways in which you should be thinking about the material, and formulate questions to test yourself. Exams will NOT be limited to the material highlighted in these questions, or their formats, so your lecture notes and handouts should be your primary reference.

Return to main EEB2214 page

Lecture 1 (28 August 2012)

1. What are the reasons for studying a particular group of organisms such as vertebrates?

2. List the basic functions of living organisms. Provide a vertebrate example for each.

3. What is a trade-off? Explain it in terms of one of the two examples (e.g. lizards and salamanders) discussed in lecture.

4. Why weren't the ancestors of lizards subject to the same constraint (trade-off)? How have some lizard relatives escaped from this constraint (e.g. Komodo dragon)?

5. Hydromantes salamanders have a high performance, ballistic tongue. What two trade-offs have allowed for this?

Lecture 2 (30 August 2012)

1. Organize the vertebrate groups (12) from the most to the least diverse (# of spp.).

2. What is a "monophyletic group"? Draw the vertebrate phylogeny and label all major monophyletic groups discussed in lecture.

3. What vertebrates (use common names) belong in the Lepidosauria? Synapsida? Actinopterygii?

5. What are the six major deuterostome groups named in lecture? Describe a representative from each group.

6. Define the term "sister group". What is the sister group of hemichordates? What is the sister group of vertebrates?

*Please refer to the Pdficon small.gifPhylogeny Tutorial and Pdficon small.gifTree Quiz for additional help with phylogenetic trees*

Lecture 3 (4 September 2012)

1. Which is the sister group of Amniota?

2. How do cephalochordates (amphioxus) bring oxygen to every cell on their bodies?

3. List three key traits (features) found in chordates. Why are Urochordates (sea squirts, tunicates) considered to be chordates when they do not possess any of these features as adults?

4. Describe the reproductive strategies of amphioxus (subphylum Cephalochordata), tunicates (subphylum Urochordata), and hagfishes (subphylum Vertebrata, Myxinoidea). Which of these lineages has the ability of reproduce clonally?

5. Describe the circulatory system of amphioxus (subphylum Cephalochordata), and tunicates (subphylum Urochordata). Which of these groups has a heart? An anterior enlargement of the nerve cord?


Lecture 4 (6 September 2012)

1. Name two traits of the feeding apparati that are shared by hagfishes and lampreys, but are different when compared to gnathostomes.

2. Describe the life history and reproductive behavior of the lamprey (Petromyzontoidea). In what ways does it differ from that of the hagfish (Myxinoidea)?

3. Both hagfish and lampreys are similar in overall body size and shape (e.g., elongate, and without paired appendages). What are some key morphological/anatomical features that can be used to differentiate between these two groups?

4. What is a "synapomorphy"? List the chordate traits (4). Which of these are considered synapomorphies?

5. Provide a brief description of the probable morphology of the ancestral chordate, given what is known about its living descendants.

6. List three vertebrate synapomorphies. List three gnathostomes synapomorphies. List two hagfish synapomorphies. List a lamprey synapomorphy.

7. Provide a brief description of the probable morphology of the ancestral vertebrate, given what is known about its living descendants.

Lecture 5 (11 September 2012)

1. Why are the "teeth" of hagfish (Myxinoidea) not homologous (i.e., evolutionarily related structures) to the teeth of other vertebrate lineages, like sharks, bony fishes, and mammals?

2. What key features place the Cambrian fossil Haikouella in the vertebrate lineage? Where would you place it on the vertebrate phylogeny?

3. What are two distinct traits seen in the Cambrian fossil Haikouichthyes (Myllokumingia) that are not seen in Haikouella?

4. What are "conodont fossils"? Why did it take so long to determine what they actually were (i.e., what organism they belonged to)? Where would you place conodont fossils on the vertebrate phylogeny?

5. Which are the three mineralized tissue layers that compose the external skeleton (dermal armor) of jawless armored fishes? What are the hypothesized functions of the external skeleton? List the three major dermal armor derivatives.

6. Describe the mineral composition of each of the three types of fish scales. Provide an example of a type of fish that possesses each of these scale types. What are the advantages of having scales as opposed to body armor?

Lecture 6 (13 September 2012)

1. Be able to answer the who, what, where, when, why, and how questions for vertebrate traits discussed in lecture. For example, the origin of jaws is seen in the ancestor to what lineages? In what environment did jaws evolve? In what geological time period did jaws evolve? What anatomical feature are jaws modified from? What is the ancestral function of jaws? What is the primary function of jaws in most extant gnathostome (jawed vertebrate) lineages?

2. In what groups do we see both paired pectoral and pelvic fins? What is the ancestral function of possessing paired fins? Briefly describe the two theories of fin evolution.

3. In what geological period do researchers think placoderms reached their highest diversity? When do chondrichthyians first show up in the fossil record?

4. Name the two major groups within Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes) and give an example of an animal that belongs to each lineage. List some unique features for each group.

5. Which are the chondrichthyian characteristics? Out of those which are considered synapomorphies?

6. Why would it be advantageous to have a mineralized cartilaginous skeleton? What would be a disadvantage for possessing this type of skeleton?

7. Provide a brief description of reproduction in sharks. How can a female shark control parentage?

8. What is viviparity? In what vertebrate lineages do viviparous organisms occur?

Lecture 7 (18 September 2012)

1. Elasmobranchs (sharks and rays) have a large diversity of tooth shapes. Describe two different shapes seen in sharks and rays. What are the functions of each of these different tooth shapes?

2. Briefly describe the jaw movement(s) in sharks.

3. Provide the who (which lineage), why (function), and how of the "Ampullae of Lorenzini"?

4. Why are the Ampullae of Lorenzini thought to be responsible for the unique head shapes in chondrichthyians?

5. Describe two differences between rays and other elasmobranchs.

6. Compare the jaws of elasmobranchs and bony fishes. What are some major ways in which they are similar? What are some ways in which they are different?

7. Describe and name three advantages of jaw protrusion in teleosts. Which traits involved in jaw protrusion are synapomorphies of teleosts?

Lecture 8 (20 September 2012)

1. Define symplesiomorphy. What is the difference with synapomorphy?

2. Which are synapomorphies of osteichthyans (bony fishes)? What two extant lineages belong in Osteichthyes? Which are synapomorphies of Actinopterygians (ray-finned fishes)? Which originated within teleosts?

3. What are pharyngeal jaws? What is their function? What is unique about the pharyngeal jaws of the Moray Eel?

4. Provide the who (which lineage), where (what environment), why (ancestral function), and how (physiological function) of the "swim bladder". Name an extra function of the swim bladder in Toadfish.

5. Name two regions in the world with both high freshwater and marine fish diversity.

6. What are the adaptations that allow icefish to live in the Antartic?

7. What adaptations have allowed fishes such as the Viperfish, Anglerfish, and Sea Devil to live in the deep ocean? In what ways are Whalefish larvae different from adults and females different from males?

8. What are the five groups of Actinopterygii? Which of these lineages is the most diverse and the least diverse? What is thought to be one possible explanation for the great diversity of Teleosts despite being evolutionarily "young" (<150 million years old)? List one Teleost synapomorphy.

Lecture 9 (25 September 2012)

1. Briefly describe the reproductive biology of the Anglerfish. Why this extreme form of sexual dimorphism is so unique to this group?

2. Name the only vertebrate with hermaphrodite organism that are able of self fertilization. Why this extreme form of reproduction is so unique to this species?

3. Describe how a lungfish can facultatively switch between breathing aquatically and aerially? List three synapomorphies for Actinistia.

4. What are the key morphological/anatomical characteristics that differentiate coelacanths (Actinistia) from Actinopterygians and other Sarcopterygians? Describe the reproduction of coelacanths.

5. List the traits that tetrapods gain and lose during the evolutionary water to land transition.

Answer the following "who, what, when, where, why, how" questions for each of the following questions:

6. AESTIVATION
What is it?
Who (what lineage) discussed in today's lecture is it seen it?
When (in evolutionary time) is it first seen?
Where (geogaphically, season-wise, and habitat-wise) does it occur?
How does it work?
Why does this lineage aestivate?

7. INTERCRANIAL JOINT
What is it?
Who (what lineage) discussed in today's lecture is it seen it?
When (roughly in evolutionary time) is it first seen?
Where (anatomically) does it occur?
How does it work?
Why (what is the function)?

8. TIKTAALIK
What is it?
When (in evolutionary time)?
Where (geographically, and habitat-wise) was it found?
Why is it considered a transitional fossil between fish and tetrapods. List its fish characteristics and its tetrapod characteristics?

EXAM 1 (27 September 2012)



Lecture 10 (2 October 2012)

Answer the following "who, what, when, where, why, how" questions for each of the following questions:

1. ACANTHOSTEGA
What is it?
When (in evolutionary time)?
Where (geographically, and habitat-wise) was it found?
Why is it considered a transitional fossil between fish and tetrapods?
List its fish characteristics and its tetrapod characteristics.

2. ICHTYOSTEGA
What is it?
When (in evolutionary time)?
Where (geographically, and habitat-wise) was it found?
Why is it considered a transitional fossil between fish and tetrapods?
List its fish characteristics and its tetrapod characteristics.

3. ZYGAPOPHYSES
What is it?
When (in evolutionary time do we first observe these)?
Where (anatomically) is it found?
Why (what is its functon)?

4. What key tetrapod trait is first seen in Acanthostega and Ichthyostega?

5. Where on the vertebrate phylogeny do Tiktaalik, Acanthostega, and Ichthyostega map out?

6. When do amphibians first appear in the fossil record?

7. Explain the hotspot of amphibian diversity in the southeast of North America.

Lecture 11 (4 October 2012)

1. What are the adaptations that allow caecilians to successfully live fossorially (underground)? Describe caecilian reproduction. Describe a unique caecilian parental behavior that has only recently observed.

2. What morphological characteristics does Eocaecilia share with extant caecilians. What morphological characteristics differ between the two?

3. What is the geographic distribution of living caudates? In which way are caudates (i.e., salamanders and newts) important to ecosystems?

4. Complete the phrase: "All newts are salamanders but...."

5. Please describe salamander reproduction (as seen in most lineages). Why is this considered indirect internal fertilization?

6. In which two extreme environments anurans are not found?

7. List the skeletal features of a frog that allows it to be a great jumper. How does the skeleton of Triadobatrachus differ from that of a modern frog? In what ways is it similar? What time period does Triadobatrachus date back to? When in geologic time was the split between anurans and their sister group, the caudates (from Lecture 10)?

8. Why are amphibians (specifically anurans and caudates) so important in the proper functioning of an ecosystem?

9. What are the anatomical, physiological, and ecological changes a tadpole undergoes as it metamorphoses into a frog? Why is this transition considered more drastic in a tadpole, as opposed to a larval salamander?


Lecture 12 (9 October 2012)

1. Identify synapomorphies for caecilians (Apoda) and frogs (Anura). Which are the amphibian synapomorphies?

2. What are the two types of skin glands founds in all living amphibians? Please list the functions of each gland type.

3. Please provide several examples of defensive behavior seen in amphibians.

4. When did the amniotes diversify? Which other diversification event coincides with the one in amniotes? What could be inferred from this coincidence?

5. In what ways were the ancestors of amniotes still dependent on water? Which adaptations have amniotes evolved to lessen their dependence on water and become largely terrestrial? In what ways have some groups of amphibians also overcome this dependence on water?

6. Describe the amniotic egg and the function of each of the three membranes.

7. Which are the synapomorphies of each of the following lineages: amniotes, sauropsids, lepidosaurs? Draw the amniote phylogeny. Draw the tetrapod phylogeny.

8. What is tail autonomy? Who is it found in? How does it work?

9. What is the evolutionary/adaptive significance of tail autotomy? Which structures in the tail do not regenerate when it grows back? What are these structures replaced with?

Lecture 13 (11 October 2012)

1. What is TSD (temperature-dependent sex determination)? In what lineages discussed in today's lecture is it found in?

2. What could be a potential effect of global warming in Tuatara conservation? Explain.

3. Compare and contrast the diversity, morphology, reproductive behavior, ecology, and geographical distribution of sphenodons (tuataras) to that of squamates (lizards, snakes).

4. What is the functional significance of the diapsid skull evolution?

5. What are the challenges of living in a desert environment? How do squamates cope with each of these challenges? In what ways are lizards able to thermoregulate? Explain how some ectotherms can be homeotherms.

6. Why ectotherms are better than endotherms at using patchy (spatial and temporal) resources?

7. List the synapomorphies of snakes. Is the loss of hind limbs and reduction of pelvic girdle a snake synapomorphy? Provide support for your answer.

8. Explain why lizards are not a monophyletic group.

9. What is thought to be the most important feature for the evolutionary success of snakes?


Lecture 14 (16 October 2012)

1. What are the parts of a turtle shell? What is the shell composed of? In what ways is having a shell beneficial? How is it disadvantageous (not beneficial)?

2. When did turtles evolve? Briefly describe the process of morphological transition between an early amniot body plan and the derived turtle morphology.

3. Name the three potential phylogenetic placements of turtles and each of the major lines of evidence supporting them.

4. Which is the importance of the trochlear process in turtle evolution?

5. Provide at least 6 turtle synapomorphies. Which of these synapomorphies is seen only in modern lineages of turtles? In what way do modern turtles differ from the 220 million year old fossil Proganochelys? What are the similarities between this fossil and modern turtles?

6. What are the two major lineages of turtles? What is the key morphological/anatomical difference between members of these two lineages?

7. Which kind of environments do turtles avoid (judging by their global distribution patterns)?

8. How does morphology differ between turtles that are primarily terrestrial and those that spend most of their time in the water?


Lecture 15 (18 October 2012)

1. Describe the range of diet in turtles. Cite one example of specialization.

2. Regardless of what type of habitat they live in, all female turtles must come on land to lay their eggs. Please comment on the reproductive behavior of turtles (e.g., egg laying behavior, presence or absence of parental care).

3. How is the sex of a turtle determined? In a population of mostly males, a female who could produce female offspring would have higher fitness (its progeny would be more successful in finding mates). Could a female turtle modify its nest making behavior in order to have higher fitness? If so, what would be a reason for the evolution of temperature-dependent sex determination?

4. The pivotal temperature in a turtle clutch (the temperature at which above it would produce females and below it would produce males) varies across species from 25 to 30°C. What are the implications of this in the face of global warming?

5. Which species of turtle could be considered endothermic and which are the adaptations that allow this condition? What are the benefits and how is this reflected behaviorally?

6. What is peculiar about turtle circulation and which advantages it offers to their behavior?

7. Describe how turtles breathe, given the fact that their ribs are fused to their shell. Why is breathing in turtles more energetically expensive than other tetrapods?

8. Describe five synapomorphies of the Archosauria. In what ways have these synapomorphies allowed archosaurs to be highly efficient and successful predators?

9. What is a synapomorphy of the Crurotarsi? Where are crocodilians located relative to dinosaurs on the phylogeny? Which EXTANT group is most closely related to crocodilians? Why aren't these two extant lineages considered sister groups?

10. What are the three major lineages of crocodilians. Discuss a few major morphological and ecological characteristics of each these families.


Lecture 16 (23 October 2012)

1. Describe two crocodilian synapomorphies. What type of predator is a crocodilian? How have these synapomorphies allowed crocodilians to exploit this particular type of predatory strategy?

2. Which benefits brings the ectotherm condition of modern crocodiles and why this condition evolved from endothermic ancestors?

3. How does the crocodilian heart differ from that of squamates? Briefly describe the shunting mechanism and its functional significance. In addition to the heart, what else enables crocodilians to stay submerged under water for long periods of time.

4. Describe at least one specialized morphological trait and at least one specialized behavioral trait that allows crocodilians to be deadly predators.

5. If we know both birds and crocodilians build and defend nests, care for hatchlings, and have complex social behavior, what can we infer about the extinct lineages of Archosauria?

6. What do crocodilians and turtles have in common regarding their reproductive biology? How do they differ?

7. What is a dinosaur?

8. Briefly describe the characteristics of the three groups of marine reptiles (which coexisted with dinosaurs) discussed in class.

9. What lineage is sister to the Crurotarsi? What group is sister to pterosaurs?

10. Name some of the important evolutionary trends in Ornithodirans.


Lecture 17 (25 October 2012)

1. Describe some of the morphological characteristics related to flight, and collectively, their ecological implications. What is the first lineage of vertebrates that we see flight as a mode of locomotion? How were they flying (i.e., flapping or gliding)? What are the two main lineages of this group and how do they differ?

2. Which morphological synapomorphy of pterosaurs resembles their name?

3. In what ways were pterosaurs morphologically and ecologically diverse? Name at least three feeding styles.

4. Name the possible functional hypotheses of pterosaur head and snout crests.

5. What might have contributed to the decline and ultimate extinction of pterosaurs?

6. List the synapomorphies for the following clades: Ornithodira, Pterosauria, and Dinosauria.

7. Name a reason that allowed dinosaurs to be giant.

8. What extant lineage needs to be included in order for Dinosauria to be considered a monophyletic grouping? What is the ancestral condition of Dinosauria, bipedalism or quadrupedalism?

9. What are the two major groups in Dinosauria? How does the pelvic arrangement differ between these groups? Which of these groups is the one leading to birds, and why are the common names of these groups misleading?

10. List four characteristics of the two main dinosaur lineages.


EXAM 2 (30 October 2012)


Lecture 18 (1 November 2012)

Lecture 19 (6 November 2012)

1. What is the functional significance of the differences in the pelvic arrangement between the two major groups in Dinosauria?

2. List six Ornithiscian synapomorphies. Give at least four examples of ornithiscian dinosaurs.

3. Comment on the diets of ornithiscians and saurischians. In what ways do you think diet has influenced their anatomy (i.e., think how the rib cage and pelvis orientation differs between these two lineages)?

4. What do Ornithiscians and Sharks have in common (besides being vertebrates)?

5. What do Stegosaurus and Ankylosaurus have in common (besides being Thyreophora)?

6. Which are the theories for the diversity of head structures in Ornithiscians?

7. What are the major saurischian synapomorphies? What are the two main groups within Saurischia? Which is the lineage leading to birds?

8. What was the Sauropod diet and which morphological adaptations are associated with it?

Lecture 20 (8 November 2012)

1. Feathers evolved in Theropods, why wasn't there a need to evolve feathers in Sauropods?

2. Are hollow bones restricted to flying animals? Justify.

3. List the Theropoda synapomorphies. What are the three main lineages within Theropoda? Name a representative and distinctive characteristic of each group.

4. What fossil evidence provides support that saurischians had parental care in the form of nest building and attendance?

5. What is a morphological distinctive feature of maniraptors? In what ways has this synapomorphy contributed to flight in modern birds?

6. What is Archaeopteryx? When was it discovered and what geological period does it date back to? How large was it?

7. Why was the discovery of Archaeopteryx so significant? In what ways is Archaeopteryx similar to both dinosaurs and modern birds? In what ways does it differ from Aves (birds)?

8. What are some proposed reasons feathers evolved? What are the proposed theories for the evolution of flight?

9. What came first, feathers, flight, or dinosaurs? Describe the evolutionary relationship between feathers and flight in birds.

Lecture 21 (13 November 2012)

1. What is the most important factor for dictating avian mating systems? Describe the differences between altricial vs. precocial offspring. How does precocial vs. altricial condition of offspring relate to the type of mating system exhibited by the parents?

2. Are most birds truly monogamous? Explain the different forms of "monogamy" and how each parent benefits from different forms of monogamy. When would each type be selected for?

3. What influences the form of polygamous mating systems? What factors underlie the differences between male & female interests in reproduction?

4. Why are males more likely to desert a reproductive alliance than females? What makes parental care such an important investment; i.e., what are the potential costs?

5. Briefly describe the polygamy threshold model. Is it better to be polygamous in a higher quality habitat, or monogamous in a lower quality habitat? Explain.

6. What limits clutch size (= number of eggs laid in a given reproductive bout) in birds?

7. Describe the characteristics of the cleidoic shell; i.e., what’s it made of, what functions does it serve, and what are the advantages and disadvantages?

8. Why do females get to be so choosy about males? How do males try to convince females that they are the best possible male?

Lecture 22 (15 November 2012)

1. How do mammals and birds differ regarding to their genetic system of sex determination?

2. Briefly explain in your own words how Bernoulli’s principle applies to flight in birds.

3. What is the main difference between dynamic soaring and high aspect ratio wings? How does this relate to the flight styles they are adapted to?

4. How does hovering flight (in hummingbirds) differ from flapping flight in other birds?

5. Name one skeletal and one muscular modification that provides evidence for birds' commitment to flight.

6. Why do birds have higher metabolic rates (when compared to other major vertebrate groups)?

7. Which are two adaptations in the jaws of birds that are related to their flying lifestyle?

8. How do bird tongues differ from mammal tongues?

9. List the unusual feeding behaviors of birds seen in class. Describe your favorite!

Lecture 23 (27 November 2012)

1. Explain the differences between the hearts of Turtles, Lizards, Crocodiles, Birds and Mammals.

2. What is the importance of unidirectional flow in the avian lungs?

3. Why unidirectional flow makes birds the group with the most efficient respiration among vertebrates?

4. Explain how avian respiratory system structures ensure unidirectional flow in the lungs?

5. Why birds have to eat so frequently?

6. List the functions of the crop.

7. What are the differences between the two parts of the "stomach" in birds (i.e. Proventriculus and Gizzard)?

8. Discuss the causes (in terms of resources) and consequences (in terms of physiology and behavior) of migration in birds.

9. Which is the sister group of mammals? How do these two groups differ in their skull characteristics?

Lecture 24 (29 November 2012)

1. What’s the difference between a synapomorphy and a trend? Describe six important trends in the Synapsida? Which is the only surviving group of synapsids?

2. Name the main four groups of synapsids. Are they paraphyletic or monophyletic?

3. Describe major features mammals have that are evident from the fossil record.

4. What were early mammals, such as Morganucodon ca. 200 MYA, like?

5. The "nocturnal bottleneck theory" suggests that mammalian sensory traits were influenced by an extended period of adaptation to nocturnality during the Mesozoic Era. Describe which important traits evolved as adaptations to nocturnal habits in mammals.

6. Which changes in the jaws lead to the transition from the reptilian to mammalian jaw joint? How does this relate to hearing?

7. What are the three major groups of extant mammals? What does the mammalian phylogeny look like?

8. How are monotremes typically distinguished from the other two? Is this a good way of characterizing a group?

9. What are the two major groups within Monotremata? Give examples of species and their major characteristics.

Lecture 25 (December 4, 2012)

1. Describe the major characteristics of marsupials. Where do they occur? Where are they most diverse? Give examples of some species and their characteristics.

2. What is the difference between altricial and precocial offspring? Which are the advantages and disadvantages of each parenting strategy?

3. What is the advantage of the particular way of marsupial reproduction (compared to placental mammals) and in which environments this reproductive strategy would be advantageous?

4. Which major evolutionary feature characterizes Eutheria? How diverse is this group?

5. Eutheria is characterized by prolonged retention of offspring. Describe the main ways in which this is accomplished.

6. Describe some advantages and disadvantages of eutherian reproduction, particularly with regard to prolonged retention of young.

7. Which is the characteristic that unites placentals and marsupials into the clade Therians?

8. List the advantages of lactation. Evolutionarily, from which muscles do facial muscles evolve from?

9. Describe the function of nasal turbinates.

Lecture 26 (December 6, 2012)

1. Give examples (at least 5) of convergent evolution between marsupials and placentals.

2. When did the great american biotic interchange take place? List the main groups that moved northwards and southwards.

3. What evidence supports the overkill hypothesis of the extinction of terrestrial megafauna? Mention one alternative hypothesis.

4. Describe the morphological traits associated to general insectivory in mammals and provide particular examples.

5. Name the convergent clades that have evolved specialized insectivory to catch ants and termites and describe their morphological adaptations.

6. Why are bats so special among mammals?

7. Describe the morphological traits associated to omnivory in mammals and provide particular examples.

8. Why are rodents so successful? Describe their feeding strategies.

9. Describe the morphological traits associated to herbivory in mammals and provide particular examples.

10. Describe the morphological traits associated to carnivory in mammals and provide particular examples.

11. Which mammalian clades are fully aquatic? Which is the sister group of cetaceans?




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