Biology of the Vertebrates Study Questions F2010

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Note: These study questions are not comprehensive. They are meant to supplement your lecture notes as you review them, and alert you to the ways in which you should be thinking about the material, and formulate questions to test yourself. Exams will NOT be limited to the material highlighted in these questions, or their formats, so your lecture notes and handouts should be your primary reference.

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Lecture 1 (31 August 2010)

1. What are the reasons for studying a particular group of organisms such as vertebrates?

2. List the basic functions of living organisms. Provide a vertebrate example for each.

3. What is a mechanical constraint? Explain it in terms of one of the three examples (e.g., lizards, Darwin's finches, Hydromantes salamanders) discussed in lecture.

4. Why weren't the ancestors of lizards subject to the same constraint? How have some lizard relatives escaped from this constraint?


Lecture 2 (2 September 2010)

1. Hydromantes salamanders have a high performance, ballistic tongue. What two trade-offs have allowed for this?

2. What is a "monophyletic lineage"? Draw the vertebrate phylogeny and label all major monophyletic groups discussed in lecture.

3. Which major taxonomic group of vertebrates is the most speciose? The least?

4. What vertebrates belong in the monophyletic lineage Lepidosauria? Synapsida? Actinopterygii?

5. What are the five major deuterostome lineages? Provide a representative from each lineage.

6. Briefly discuss the controversy surrounding Xenoturbella. Most recent studies suggest this organism belongs in what taxonomic group?

*Please refer to the Pdficon small.gifPhylogeny Tutorial and Pdficon small.gifTree Quiz for additional help with phylogenetic trees*


Lecture 3 (7 September 2010)

1. Define the term "sister group". What is the sister group of chordates? What is the sister group of vertebrates?

2. Describe "lateral undulation". List three organisms discussed in today's (and past) lectures that use this form of locomotion.

3. What is a "homolog" and give an example.

4. List three key traits (features) found in chordates. Why are Urochordates (sea squirts, tunicates) considered to be chordates when they do not possess any of these features as adults?

5. Describe the feeding behaviors of amphioxus (subphylum Cephalochordata), tunicates (subphylum Urochordata), and hagfishes (subphylum Vertebrata, Myxinoidea). In what group do we see the beginning of a complex digestive system (i.e., midgut cecum)?

6. Describe the reproductive strategies of amphioxus (subphylum Cephalochordata), tunicates (subphylum Urochordata), and hagfishes (subphylum Vertebrata, Myxinoidea). Which of these lineages has the ability of reproduce clonally?

7. Describe the circulatory system of amphioxus (subphylum Cephalochordata), and tunicates (subphylum Urochordata). Which of these groups has a heart?

8. What is direct development? Which of the lineages discussed today consist of direct developers?

9. Why are the "teeth" of hagfish (Myxinoidea) not homologous (i.e., evolutionarily related structures) to the teeth of other vertebrate lineages, like sharks, bony fishes, and mammals? How do hagfishes have the ability to generate significant bite force despite lacking a jaw?

10. What are the two components of hagfish slime? What else do these two components mix with to generate huge amounts of slime?

Lecture 4 (9 September 2010)

1. What is a "synapomorphy"? List the chordate synapomorphies. Which of these are considered to be controversial chordate synapomorphies because similar structures are found in other non-chordate lineages?

2. Provide a brief description of what the probable morphology of the ancestral chordate was. What conclusions can be drawn about its life history and reproductive behavior, given what we know about extant (living) chordate lineages?

3. List three vertebrate synapomorphies. List two hagfish synapomorphies. Both hagfish and lampreys are similar in overall body size and shape (e.g., elongate, and without paired appendages). What are some key morphological/anatomical features that can be used to differentiate between these two organisms?

4. Describe the life history and reproductive behavior of the lamprey (Petromyzontoidea). In what ways does it differ from that of the hagfish (Myxinoidea)?

5. What is a "lateral line system"? In what extant vertebrate lineage do we first see a lateral line system?

6. What key features place the Cambrian fossil Haikouella in the vertebrate lineage? Where would you place it on the vertebrate phylogeny? What are two distinct traits seen in the Cambrian fossil Haikouichthyes (Myllokumingia) that are not seen in Haikouella?

7. What are "conodont fossils"? Why did it take so long to determine what they actually were (i.e., what organism they belonged to)? Where would you place conodont fossils on the vertebrate phylogeny?

Lecture 5 (14 September 2010)

1. What are the three mineralized tissue layers that compose the external skeleton (dermal armor) of jawless armored fishes? What are the hypothesized functions of the external skeleton? List the three major dermal armor derivatives.

2. Describe the mineral composition of each of the three types of fish scales. Provide an example of a type of fish that possesses each of these scale types. What are the advantages of having scales as opposed to body armor?

3. What are the differences between dermal bone, endochondrial bone, and perichondrial bone? What lineage is endochondrial bone a synapomorphy of?

4. In what lineages do we see both paired pectoral and pelvic fins? What is the ancestral function of possessing paired fins? Briefly describe the two theories of fin evolution.

5. The origin of jaws is seen in the ancestor to what lineages? What anatomical feature are jaws modified from? What is the ancestral function of jaws? What is the primary function of jaws in most extant gnathostome (jawed vertebrate) lineages?

6. In what geological period do researchers think placoderms reached their highest diversity? When do chondrichthyians first show up in the fossil record?

7. Name the two major groups within Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes) and give an example of an animal that belongs to each lineage. List some unique features for each group. What are the chondrichthyian synapomorphies?

8. Why would it be advantageous to have a mineralized cartilaginous skeleton? What would be a disadvantage for possessing this type of skeleton?

9. Provide a brief description of reproduction in sharks. How can a female shark control parentage?

Lecture 6 (16 September 2010)

1. What is viviparity? In what vertebrate lineage do we first see viviparous organisms?

2. Elasmobranchs (sharks and rays) have a large diversity of tooth shapes. Describe two different two shapes seen in sharks and rays. What are the functions of each of these different tooth shapes? Briefly describe the jaw movement(s) in sharks.

3. Provide the who (which lineage), why (function), and how of the "Ampullae of Lorenzini"? Why is the Ampullae of Lorenzini thought to be responsible for the unique head shapes in chondichthyians?

4. Why are the largest species of sharks and rays (as well as largest species of mammals) filter feeders? What adaptations allow whale sharks, basking sharks, and manta rays to successfully filter feed on marine microinvertebrates?

5. Name four anatomical/morphological ways rays and skates differ from sharks. Of the elasmobranchs, which lineage (sharks or rays) is more diverse?

6. Provide the who (which lineage), where (what environment), why (ancestral function), and how (physiological function) of the "swim bladder".

Lecture 7 (21 September 2010)

1. List the synapomorphies of Osteichthyes (bony fishes). What two extant lineages belong in Osteichthyes? List the synapomorphies of Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes).

2. What are the five groups of Actinopterygii? Which of these lineages is the most diverse and the least diverse? What is thought to be one possible explanation for the great diversity of Teleosts despite being evolutionarily "young" (<150 million years old)? List one Teleost synapomorphy.

3. What adaptations have allowed fishes such as the Viperfish, Anglerfish, and Sea Devil to live in the deep ocean? In what ways are Whalefish larvae different from adults and females different from males?

4. What are pharyngeal jaws? What is their function? What is unique about the pharyngeal jaws of the Moray Eel?

5. What is 'sequential hermaphroditism'? Describe 'protogyny' and 'protandry'? Under what circumstances would each most likely evolve? What are typically the limiting factors to the number of reproductive events in males and in females? Why do female Seahorses and Pipefishes compete for males?

Lecture 8 (23 September 2010)

1. What are the key morphological/anatomical characteristics that differentiate coelacanths (Actinistia) from Actinopterygians and other Sarcopterygians? Describe the reproduction of coelacanths. Although there are only two extant species, coelacanths have a very diverse fossil record. When was the first Actinistian fossil found?

Answer the following "who, what, when, where, why, how" questions for each of the following questions:

2. AESTIVATION
What is it?
Who (what lineage) discussed in today's lecture is it seen it?
When (in evolutionary time) is it first seen?
Where (geogaphically, season-wise, and habitat-wise) does it occur?
How does it work?
Why does this lineage aestivate?

3. INTERCRANIAL JOINT
What is it?
Who (what lineage) discussed in today's lecture is it seen it?
When (roughly in evolutionary time) is it first seen?
Where (anatomically) does it occur?
How does it work?
Why (what is the function)?

4. TIKTAALIK
What is it?
When (in evolutionary time)?
Where (geographically, and habitat-wise) was it found?
Why is it considered a transitional fossil between fish and tetrapods. List its fish characteristics and its tetrapod characteristics?

5. What are the synapomorphies for the following lineages? Sarcopterygii, Actinistia, Rhipidistia, Dipnoi, Tetrapoda?

6. Describe how a lungfish can facultatively switch between breathing aquatically and aerially?

7. Why is Ventastega thought to be more closely related to tetrapods than Tiktaalik? What key tetrapod trait is first seen in Acanthostega and Ichthyostega?

Lecture 9 (28 September 2010)

Material about the origin of tetrapods will be included on exam 1; Lissamphibian diversity will be covered on exam 2.

Answer the following "who, what, when, where, why, how" questions for each of the following questions:

1. ACANTHOSTEGA
What is it?
When (in evolutionary time)?
Where (geographically, and habitat-wise) was it found?
Why is it considered a transitional fossil between fish and tetrapods. List its fish characteristics and its tetrapod characteristics?

2. ICHTYOSTEGA
What is it?
When (in evolutionary time)?
Where (geographically, and habitat-wise) was it found?
Why is it considered a transitional fossil between fish and tetrapods. List its fish characteristics and its tetrapod characteristics?

3. ZYGAPOPHYSES
What is it?
When (in evolutionary time do we first observe these)?
Where (anatomically) is it found?
Why (what is its functon)?

4. Where on the vertebrate phylogeny do Tiktaalik, Ventastega, Acanthostega, and Ichthyostega map out? What is the debate surrounding Acanthostega and Ichthyostega? How does this change their placement on the vertebrate phylogeny?

5. List the three Lissamphibian lineages and provide an example of each. What does the Lissamphibia phylogeny look like?

6. What are the adaptations that allow caecilians to successfully live fossorially (underground)? Describe caecilian reproduction. Describe a unique caecilian reproductive/parental behavior that has only recently observed?

7. What morphological characteristics does Eocaecilia share with extant caecilians. What morphological characteristics differ between the two? What is the phylogenetic placement of Eocaecilia?

8. What is the geographic distribution of living caudates? Provide at least one salamander biodiversity hotspot. In what way are caudates (i.e., salamanders and newts) important to ecosystems?

9. How do salamanders communicate with one another? Please describe salamander reproduction (as seen in most lineages). Why is this considered indirect sperm transfer?

EXAM 1 (30 September 2010)



Lecture 10 (5 October 2010)

1. What are three possible explanations for the evolutionary and ecological success of Anura (~5858 species of frogs and toads, global distribution) relative to that of Caudata and Gymnophiona? Provide one example of how a frog has coped with the adverse conditions of a low-productivity (harsh) environment.

2. List the skeletal features of a frog that allows it to be a great jumper. How does the skeleton of Triadobatrachus differ from that of a modern frog? In what ways is it similar? What time period does Triadobatrachus date back to? When in geologic time was the split between anurans and their sister group, the caudates (from Lecture 9)?

3. Why are amphibians (specifically anurans and caudates) so important in the proper functioning of an ecosystem? Briefly comment on the feeding and diet of anurans (i.e., are they specialized feeders?)

4. What are the anatomical, physiological, and ecological changes a tadpole undergoes as it metamorphoses into a frog? Why is this transition considered more drastic in a tadpole, as opposed to a larval salamander?

5. What is the function of frog vocalization? What information does an advertisement call (vocalization) of a male frog convey? In addition to advertisement (or mating) calls, what other types of vocalizations do anurans have?

6. What type of fertilization do most anurans have? How does the male frog help ensure that his sperm fertilizes a female's eggs? What are 'nuptial pads' and how do they aid male frogs in reproduction?

7. What is 'direct development'? Why have many species of frogs (and salamanders) adopted this reproductive strategy? Provide six ways in which anurans provide parental care. Describe the unique reproductive mode of the gastric-brooding frog.

Lecture 11 (7 October 2010)

1. What is Gerobatrachus? When in geological time did it occur? Where does it fit on the amphibian phylogeny? Why (i.e., reasoning behind phylogenetic placement)?

2. What is a synapomorphy of Lissamphibia? What are at least three synapomorphies of Gymnophiona? Anura?

3. What are the two types of skin glands founds in all living amphibians? Please list the functions of each gland type. How have one of these gland types allowed for ~50% of all salamander species, 1 species of frog, and 2 species of caecilians to evolve lunglessness?

4. Please provide several examples of defensive behavior seen in amphibians.

5. List at least five explanations for amphibian declines. What is the primary explanation for loss of amphibian biodiversity? Where are some of the most devastating amphibian declines occurring in the world?

6. What is Bd/chytrid (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis)? Who does is affect? Where (anatomically, ecologically, geographically) does it occur? How does it work as an infectious organism (i.e., explain complex life cycle)? What is one possible way to prevent or fight off a Bd infection?

7. Describe the plight of the Mountain Yellow-legged Frog from the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California, including two major causes of die-offs. What are some potential actions to remedy this in an attempt to help this endangered amphibian species recover?

Lecture 12 (12 October 2010)

1. What adaptations have amniotes evolved to lessen their dependence on water and become largely terrestrial? Describe the amniotic egg and the function of each of the three membranes. Who produces the shell of an egg? Who produces the amniotic membranes within an egg?

2. What are synapomorphies of each of the following lineages: amniotes, sauropsids, lepidosaurs (lizards, snakes, tuataras), and squamates (lizards, snakes)? Draw the amniote phylogeny.

3. What is tail autonomy? Who is it found in? How does it work? Why (what is the evolutionary/adaptive significance)?

4. What is TSD (temperature-dependent sex determination)? In what lineages discussed in today's lecture is it found in?

5. Compare and contrast the diversity, morphology, reproductive behavior, ecology, and geographical distribution of sphenodons (tuataras) to that of squamates (lizards, snakes).

Lecture 13 (14 October 2010)

1. What are the challenges of living in a desert environment? How do squamates cope with each of these challenges? In what ways are lizards able to thermoregulate? Provide at least two examples of convergent evolution, where two lizard species independently evolved similar adaptations which enabled desert living.

2. List the synapomorphies of snakes. Is the loss of hind limbs and reduction of pelvic girdle a snake synapomorphy? Provide support for your answer.

3. FORKED TONGUE
What is it?
Who (what lineages) do we see it in?
Why (what is its function)?
How does it work?

4. What are three feeding specializations (ways to eat) if you have a small head and a large body? In what ways does a snake skull allow for an increased gape?

5. There has been a reinvasion of snakes into a marine habitat. What are some adaptations that have enabled these snakes to live in the ocean?

Lecture 14 (19 Oct 2010)

1. What are the parts of a turtle shell? What is the shell composed of? In what ways is having a shell beneficial? How is it disadvantageous (not beneficial)?

2. Provide at least 6 turtle synapomorphies. Which of these synapomorphies is seen only in modern lineages of turtles? In what way do modern turtles differ from the 220 million year old fossil Proganochelys? What are the similarities between this fossil and modern turtles?

3. What are the two major lineages of turtles? What is the key morphological/anatomical difference between members of these two lineages?

4. Describe how turtles breathe, given the fact that their ribs are fused to their shell. Why is breathing in turtles more energetically expensive than other tetrapods?

5. How does morphology differ between turtles that are primarily terrestrial and those that spend most of their time in the water? Regardless of what type of habitat they live in, all female turtles must come on land to lay their eggs. Please comment on the reproductive behavior of turtles (e.g., egg laying behavior, presence or absence of parental care).

6. How is the sex of a turtle determined? What approximate temperature would guarantee all female turtle hatchlings and what are the implications of this in the face of global warming?




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